Multinational Companies and Environmental Degradation in Akwa Ibom State
Abstract
This study investigate the environmental challenges caused by Multinational oil operations in Akwa Ibom State, highlighting the detrimental effects on crop yields, public health, land productivity, and farm income in the host communities. The research focused on oil producing areas of Mkpanak, Atabrikang, and Iwo Ukpum in Ibeno Local Government Area, where oil spills have significantly impacted the environment. The study identified multiple causes of these oil spills, including equipment failure, sabotage, human error, corrosion, blowouts, engineering mistakes, natural causes, and third-party interference, among others. These factors have resulted in widespread environmental degradation, including soil contamination, water pollution, and the destruction of local ecosystems. Despite numerous efforts by both federal and state governments to address the environmental damage in the Niger Delta, the region continues to face severe environmental issues. The work adopted descriptive method to gather information which made it to rely on documentary evidence. The work proposed that to reduced environmental degradation in oil producing areas of Akwa Ibom State government must be resilient in enforcement of extant environmental laws. To mitigate these challenges, the study recommended that the government enforce compliance with the "pay-as-you-flare" laws, directing the funds generated towards projects that would help alleviate the negative impacts of gas flaring in the host communities.
References
1. Aboribo, J. O. (2018). Environmental degradation and socio-economic implications in the Niger Delta: A case study of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Policy and Development, 5(3), 45-58.
2. Abubakar, T. B. (2021). Health impacts of environmental pollution from oil operations in the Niger Delta: A case study of Akwa Ibom State. Journal of Environmental Health Studies, 22(3), 87-95.
3. Adebayo, O. (2022). Inter-agency conflicts in environmental policy enforcement in Nigeria: A case study. Environmental Governance Journal, 18(3), 34-50.
4. Akinola, A., Olawuyi, D., & Egbewole, W. (2022). Gas flaring and its health effects: A systematic review of studies in Nigeria’s oil-producing communities. Environmental Health Perspectives, 29(4), 132-145.
5. Akinola, O. A. (2017). Challenges in environmental regulation enforcement in Nigeria: The case of NOSDRA. International Journal of Environmental Policy, 12(1), 78-92.
6. Akinwale, O. A. (2022). Multinational corporations' oil exploration, poverty, and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Studies, 15(3), 45-67.
7. Akpan, S. O., & Umoh, C. D. (2022). Environmental justice and socio-economic conflicts in the Niger Delta. African Journal of Development, 16(2), 45–62.
8. Akpan, S., & Ekanem, A. (2019). The impact of oil pollution on fish stocks in the Niger Delta. Environmental Studies Journal, 23(2), 110-121.
9. Aluko, A., & Effiong, U. (2022). The economic impact of oil pollution on local communities in the Niger Delta. Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, 24(1), 145-161.
10. Amu, L. (2016). A review of Nigeria Petroleum Industry. Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) Annual Report, Abuja (2001).
11. Anioke, G. (2015). Conflict Resolution in the Local Government; Paper presentation in a Workshop organized by Local Government Service Commission, Enugu. 1st Nov. 2005.
12. Atah, O. (2000). Environmental implications of gas flaring in Nigeria’s Niger Delta: Ozone depletion and biodiversity loss. Global Environmental Change Journal, 15(3), 220-230.
13. Auty, R. M. (1993). Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The Resource Curse Thesis. Routledge.
14. Auty, R. M. (1993). Sustaining development in mineral economies: The resource curse thesis. London: Routledge.
15. Ayodele, T., & Onuoha, C. (2020). The role of legal frameworks in environmental protection: A focus on the Niger Delta. Ibadan: University Press.
16. Bassey, A., & Udo, C. (2023). Impacts of oil exploration: Oil and gas conflicts; Niger Delta as a case study. African Journal of Conflict Resolution, 19(1), 123-145.
17. Bassey, C. (2015). Two years After the UNEP: Ogoni Groans on Sahara Repoters. Available at Saharareporters.com.Retrieved on 12 March 2017.
18. Bassey, N. (2015). The human cost of oil production in the Niger Delta: A study of Akwa Ibom State. Journal of African Environmental Studies, 7(1), 40-55.
19. Bassey, N. (2018). The economic implications of gas flaring in Nigeria: Costs and potential benefits of utilizing flared gas. Energy Policy Review, 24(2), 115-127.
20. Bassey, N. (2018). Two years after the UNEP: Ogoni groans on Sahara Reporters. Available at Saharareporters.com. Accessed on 15th Oct.2023).
21. Bisina, J. (2014). Oil and Corporate Reckless in Nigeria Niger Delta Region Panbalizuka News Global Policy Forum, 29 July. Retrieved on Oct 15, 2017.
22. Dode, R. (2014) Element of Comparative Federalism. Nuclear Spin Publisher,Uyo.
23. Ebong, I (2018). Oil Exploration and the Challenges of Implementing Environmental Protection Policies in Nigeria. A Study of Akwa Ibom State. Being an M.Sc Thesis Presented in the Department of Political Science and Public Administration for the Award of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Public Administration.
24. Egwu, S. (2012).Oil spill Control and Management. Petroleum Technology Development Journal Quarterly, 19(3): 457-478.
25. Ejibunu, H. T., & Odukoya, P. A. (2022). Oil spill management and environmental restoration in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Environmental Management Journal, 13(3), 219–238.
26. Ekongson, P. (2016). Oil and Niger Delta Crisis. Afanghide Publication, Uyo.
27. Ekpebu, D. and Ukpong, G. (2013). Crude oil Production in Bayelsa State of Nigeria, Implications on Agriculture and Rural Development. Proceeding of the 5th Annual Conference of the Nigerian Society of Indigenous Knowledge and Development . 45p
28. Eluka, J. Ndubuisi-Okolo, P and Anekwe, I. (2016) Multinational Corporations and Their Effects on Nigerian Economy. European Journal of Business and Management, 8 (9):59-67.
29. Etebu, E., & Azubuike, M. (2021). Environmental degradation and health consequences in the Niger Delta: A review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 11(4), 69-85.
30. Eteng, R. (2019). Gas flaring and its health impacts: A study of Mkpanak and Atabrikang communities in Akwa Ibom State. Journal of Environmental Health, 27(3), 200-215.
31. Etim, A. I., Akpan, M. F., & Effiong, E. T. (2023). Oil pollution and biodiversity loss in Nigeria’s Niger Delta: Implications for sustainable livelihoods. Journal of Ecological Studies, 20(1), 112–130.
32. Etuk, E. (2021). Corrosive effects of acid rain on roofing materials in the Niger Delta: A case study of Mkpanak. Journal of Environmental Research, 13(2), 88-96.
33. Eze, E. (2021). Legal barriers to environmental justice in Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Law, 18(3), 45–63.
34. Eze, E., & Okafor, J. (2022). Technological limitations in environmental monitoring in Nigeria. Environmental Science Quarterly, 20(4), 56–72.
35. Eze, K., & Amadi, S. (2022). Human security, sustainable livelihoods, and development: The case of oil exploration in Nigeria's Niger Delta. Sustainable Development Journal, 10(2), 89-
36. Ezeanyika, E. (2016). The Politics of Development Economy in the South: Problems and Prospects. Gabtong and Associated publichers Ltd, Owerri.
37. Ezeanyika, I. O. (2006). Oil and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. Journal of Environmental Studies, 18(4), 65-78.
38. Hashimu, B., & Ango, A. (2012). Multinational companies’ corporate social responsibility: Challenges and prospects in developing countries. Journal of Corporate Governance and Social Responsibility, 10(2), 45-58.
39. Hill, L. (2005). International Business: Competing in the global marketplace. 5th Edition. New
40. Ibrahim, M. (2021). Constitutional limitations and environmental governance in Nigeria. Nigerian Law Review, 23(2), 87–102.
41. Ijibunu, O. (2015). The socio-economic effects of oil exploration in Akwa Ibom State. African Journal of Development Studies, 7(3), 43-56.
42. Ikpe, E. I., & Williams, J. A. (2023). Environmental policy enforcement and corporate accountability in Nigeria's oil sector. Policy and Governance Review, 9(2), 67–89.
43. Kogut, B. Zander, U. (2003). A Memoir and Reflection: Knowledge and an Evolutionary Theory of the Multinational Firm. Journal of International Business Studies, 4(2): 505-515.
44. Kpone-Tonwe, S. P., & Otu, L. O. (2021). Oil spills and livelihood challenges in the Niger Delta: A case study of local fishing communities. International Journal of Environmental Research, 15(2), 88–105.
45. Norberg, J. (2003). Globalisation is Good, Documentary, Channel 4, Sunday 21st September, 2003.
46. Ntorue, R. (2018). The challenges of community development in Nigeria. Domination Publication, Port Harcourt.
47. Nwachukwu, I., & Uduma, F. (2022). Environmental justice and oil extraction in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. International Journal of Environmental Justice and Sustainability, 13(1), 12-25.
48. Nwankwo, T., & Emeka, P. I. (2023). Survey of wastewater issues due to oil spills and pollution in the Niger Delta. International Journal of Water Resources, 14(4), 233-251.
49. Nwilo, C., & Badejo, O. (2015). Oil spill problems and management in the Niger Delta. Journal of Environmental Management and Policy, 22(3), 34-47.
50. Ogbuigwe, A. (2018). Local government challenges in environmental management. Port Harcourt: Rivers State Press.
51. Oguntoke, O., & Anifowose, T. (2023). Gas flaring, air pollution, and public health in oil-producing communities of Nigeria. Climate and Health Review, 11(1), 55–73.
52. Okonta, I., & Douglas, S. (2001). Where vultures feast: Shell, human rights, and oil in the Niger Delta. New York: Verso.
53. Okorie, U. E., & Isu, G. I. (2020). Health implications of oil-related environmental pollution in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. Journal of Public Health and Environmental Studies, 15(4), 44-55.
54. Okorodudu-Fubara, M. (2017). Environmental law and sustainable development in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press.
55. Okoye, E. N. (2021). Policy implementation failures in Nigeria’s environmental governance: The case of the Niger Delta. Journal of Policy and Environmental Management, 18(2), 93-110.
56. Okpukri, O. and Ibaba, I. (2014). Oil induced Environmental Degradation and internal population Displacement to the Nigeria’s Niger Delta. Journal of sustainable development in Africa, 1(7): 29-27.
57. Olanrewaju, U. (2014). Corporate Social Responsibility of Corporations to Host Communities: Business Day Newspaper, Sept. 26, pp. 43
58. Olawuyi, D. (2020). Environmental impact assessments in Nigeria: A critical review. International Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 6(1), 30-45.
59. Olawuyi, D. (2021). Regulating gas flaring in Nigeria: Legal frameworks, challenges, and policy options. African Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 14(3), 135-148.
60. Oloyede, B. (2020). Public participation in environmental policy development in Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Studies, 15(1), 23–38.
61. Oloyede, B. (2021). Corruption and governance issues in environmental policy enforcement in Nigeria. Journal of Governance and Policy, 9(3), 65–78.
62. Olujimi, R. (2010). The enforcement of environmental protection laws in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Journal of African Law and Policy, 8(3), 127-142.
63. Onwuka, C. P. (2023). Environmental degradation in the Niger Delta: A review of oil exploration impacts. International Journal of Environmental Science, 30(2), 76-89.
64. Osuagwu, O., & Ezie, O. (2013). Multinational corporations and the Nigerian economy: Impacts and challenges. Journal of Economic Development and Policy, 14(2), 89-102.
65. Ross, M. L. (2001). Does oil hinder democracy? World Politics, 53(3), 325–361.
66. Sala-i-Martin, X., & Subramanian, A. (2013). Addressing the natural resource curse: An illustration from Nigeria. Journal of African Economies, 22(4), 570–615.
67. Sampson, D. (2015). ICT Consumption and challenges of environmental Sustainability in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Beyon Global Market, Jan 5-8, international Society of Market and Development, Hanoi, Vietnam pp:12-19.
68. Sampson, J. (2020). The role of sustainable resource management in mitigating the impacts of gas flaring. Journal of Sustainable Development, 32(1), 45-60.
69. Spero, J., Hart, J. (2003).The Politics of International Economic Relations, London Thompson
70. Uduak, S. (2019). Poverty, oil, and environmental degradation in Akwa Ibom State: A case study of oil-bearing communities. Development in Africa Journal, 6(2), 88-101.
71. Ugbomeh, B. (2018). Oil exploration and Exploitation: some lessons from Delta State. In: Odermerho (editior). Delta State in Maps.An occasional publication series of the Department of Geography and Regional Planning Delta State University, Abraka.Journal of Agriculture and sustainability, 28(14): 172-181.
72. Ugochukwu, A. (2021). Health risks of gas flaring in the Niger Delta: A public health perspective. Nigerian Journal of Public Health, 19(4), 72-80.
73. Umoh, J. I., & Okon, E. E. (2023). Impact of oil spills on the environment of Akwa Ibom State: A review. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 12(3), 120-132.
74. UNEP (2021). Environmental impact of gas flaring in the Niger Delta: A report on health and ecological consequences. United Nations Environment Programme.
75. Victor, I Ebong, I. and Washington, U. (2018) oil Exploration and the Challenges of Implementing Environmental protection Policies in Nigeria’s Niger delta Region. International Journal of Social, Politics and humanities 4(2):231-244.
76. Watts, M. (2004). Resource curse? Governmentality, oil, and power in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Geopolitics, 9(1), 50–80.
2. Abubakar, T. B. (2021). Health impacts of environmental pollution from oil operations in the Niger Delta: A case study of Akwa Ibom State. Journal of Environmental Health Studies, 22(3), 87-95.
3. Adebayo, O. (2022). Inter-agency conflicts in environmental policy enforcement in Nigeria: A case study. Environmental Governance Journal, 18(3), 34-50.
4. Akinola, A., Olawuyi, D., & Egbewole, W. (2022). Gas flaring and its health effects: A systematic review of studies in Nigeria’s oil-producing communities. Environmental Health Perspectives, 29(4), 132-145.
5. Akinola, O. A. (2017). Challenges in environmental regulation enforcement in Nigeria: The case of NOSDRA. International Journal of Environmental Policy, 12(1), 78-92.
6. Akinwale, O. A. (2022). Multinational corporations' oil exploration, poverty, and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Studies, 15(3), 45-67.
7. Akpan, S. O., & Umoh, C. D. (2022). Environmental justice and socio-economic conflicts in the Niger Delta. African Journal of Development, 16(2), 45–62.
8. Akpan, S., & Ekanem, A. (2019). The impact of oil pollution on fish stocks in the Niger Delta. Environmental Studies Journal, 23(2), 110-121.
9. Aluko, A., & Effiong, U. (2022). The economic impact of oil pollution on local communities in the Niger Delta. Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, 24(1), 145-161.
10. Amu, L. (2016). A review of Nigeria Petroleum Industry. Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) Annual Report, Abuja (2001).
11. Anioke, G. (2015). Conflict Resolution in the Local Government; Paper presentation in a Workshop organized by Local Government Service Commission, Enugu. 1st Nov. 2005.
12. Atah, O. (2000). Environmental implications of gas flaring in Nigeria’s Niger Delta: Ozone depletion and biodiversity loss. Global Environmental Change Journal, 15(3), 220-230.
13. Auty, R. M. (1993). Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The Resource Curse Thesis. Routledge.
14. Auty, R. M. (1993). Sustaining development in mineral economies: The resource curse thesis. London: Routledge.
15. Ayodele, T., & Onuoha, C. (2020). The role of legal frameworks in environmental protection: A focus on the Niger Delta. Ibadan: University Press.
16. Bassey, A., & Udo, C. (2023). Impacts of oil exploration: Oil and gas conflicts; Niger Delta as a case study. African Journal of Conflict Resolution, 19(1), 123-145.
17. Bassey, C. (2015). Two years After the UNEP: Ogoni Groans on Sahara Repoters. Available at Saharareporters.com.Retrieved on 12 March 2017.
18. Bassey, N. (2015). The human cost of oil production in the Niger Delta: A study of Akwa Ibom State. Journal of African Environmental Studies, 7(1), 40-55.
19. Bassey, N. (2018). The economic implications of gas flaring in Nigeria: Costs and potential benefits of utilizing flared gas. Energy Policy Review, 24(2), 115-127.
20. Bassey, N. (2018). Two years after the UNEP: Ogoni groans on Sahara Reporters. Available at Saharareporters.com. Accessed on 15th Oct.2023).
21. Bisina, J. (2014). Oil and Corporate Reckless in Nigeria Niger Delta Region Panbalizuka News Global Policy Forum, 29 July. Retrieved on Oct 15, 2017.
22. Dode, R. (2014) Element of Comparative Federalism. Nuclear Spin Publisher,Uyo.
23. Ebong, I (2018). Oil Exploration and the Challenges of Implementing Environmental Protection Policies in Nigeria. A Study of Akwa Ibom State. Being an M.Sc Thesis Presented in the Department of Political Science and Public Administration for the Award of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Public Administration.
24. Egwu, S. (2012).Oil spill Control and Management. Petroleum Technology Development Journal Quarterly, 19(3): 457-478.
25. Ejibunu, H. T., & Odukoya, P. A. (2022). Oil spill management and environmental restoration in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Environmental Management Journal, 13(3), 219–238.
26. Ekongson, P. (2016). Oil and Niger Delta Crisis. Afanghide Publication, Uyo.
27. Ekpebu, D. and Ukpong, G. (2013). Crude oil Production in Bayelsa State of Nigeria, Implications on Agriculture and Rural Development. Proceeding of the 5th Annual Conference of the Nigerian Society of Indigenous Knowledge and Development . 45p
28. Eluka, J. Ndubuisi-Okolo, P and Anekwe, I. (2016) Multinational Corporations and Their Effects on Nigerian Economy. European Journal of Business and Management, 8 (9):59-67.
29. Etebu, E., & Azubuike, M. (2021). Environmental degradation and health consequences in the Niger Delta: A review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 11(4), 69-85.
30. Eteng, R. (2019). Gas flaring and its health impacts: A study of Mkpanak and Atabrikang communities in Akwa Ibom State. Journal of Environmental Health, 27(3), 200-215.
31. Etim, A. I., Akpan, M. F., & Effiong, E. T. (2023). Oil pollution and biodiversity loss in Nigeria’s Niger Delta: Implications for sustainable livelihoods. Journal of Ecological Studies, 20(1), 112–130.
32. Etuk, E. (2021). Corrosive effects of acid rain on roofing materials in the Niger Delta: A case study of Mkpanak. Journal of Environmental Research, 13(2), 88-96.
33. Eze, E. (2021). Legal barriers to environmental justice in Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Law, 18(3), 45–63.
34. Eze, E., & Okafor, J. (2022). Technological limitations in environmental monitoring in Nigeria. Environmental Science Quarterly, 20(4), 56–72.
35. Eze, K., & Amadi, S. (2022). Human security, sustainable livelihoods, and development: The case of oil exploration in Nigeria's Niger Delta. Sustainable Development Journal, 10(2), 89-
36. Ezeanyika, E. (2016). The Politics of Development Economy in the South: Problems and Prospects. Gabtong and Associated publichers Ltd, Owerri.
37. Ezeanyika, I. O. (2006). Oil and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. Journal of Environmental Studies, 18(4), 65-78.
38. Hashimu, B., & Ango, A. (2012). Multinational companies’ corporate social responsibility: Challenges and prospects in developing countries. Journal of Corporate Governance and Social Responsibility, 10(2), 45-58.
39. Hill, L. (2005). International Business: Competing in the global marketplace. 5th Edition. New
40. Ibrahim, M. (2021). Constitutional limitations and environmental governance in Nigeria. Nigerian Law Review, 23(2), 87–102.
41. Ijibunu, O. (2015). The socio-economic effects of oil exploration in Akwa Ibom State. African Journal of Development Studies, 7(3), 43-56.
42. Ikpe, E. I., & Williams, J. A. (2023). Environmental policy enforcement and corporate accountability in Nigeria's oil sector. Policy and Governance Review, 9(2), 67–89.
43. Kogut, B. Zander, U. (2003). A Memoir and Reflection: Knowledge and an Evolutionary Theory of the Multinational Firm. Journal of International Business Studies, 4(2): 505-515.
44. Kpone-Tonwe, S. P., & Otu, L. O. (2021). Oil spills and livelihood challenges in the Niger Delta: A case study of local fishing communities. International Journal of Environmental Research, 15(2), 88–105.
45. Norberg, J. (2003). Globalisation is Good, Documentary, Channel 4, Sunday 21st September, 2003.
46. Ntorue, R. (2018). The challenges of community development in Nigeria. Domination Publication, Port Harcourt.
47. Nwachukwu, I., & Uduma, F. (2022). Environmental justice and oil extraction in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. International Journal of Environmental Justice and Sustainability, 13(1), 12-25.
48. Nwankwo, T., & Emeka, P. I. (2023). Survey of wastewater issues due to oil spills and pollution in the Niger Delta. International Journal of Water Resources, 14(4), 233-251.
49. Nwilo, C., & Badejo, O. (2015). Oil spill problems and management in the Niger Delta. Journal of Environmental Management and Policy, 22(3), 34-47.
50. Ogbuigwe, A. (2018). Local government challenges in environmental management. Port Harcourt: Rivers State Press.
51. Oguntoke, O., & Anifowose, T. (2023). Gas flaring, air pollution, and public health in oil-producing communities of Nigeria. Climate and Health Review, 11(1), 55–73.
52. Okonta, I., & Douglas, S. (2001). Where vultures feast: Shell, human rights, and oil in the Niger Delta. New York: Verso.
53. Okorie, U. E., & Isu, G. I. (2020). Health implications of oil-related environmental pollution in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. Journal of Public Health and Environmental Studies, 15(4), 44-55.
54. Okorodudu-Fubara, M. (2017). Environmental law and sustainable development in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press.
55. Okoye, E. N. (2021). Policy implementation failures in Nigeria’s environmental governance: The case of the Niger Delta. Journal of Policy and Environmental Management, 18(2), 93-110.
56. Okpukri, O. and Ibaba, I. (2014). Oil induced Environmental Degradation and internal population Displacement to the Nigeria’s Niger Delta. Journal of sustainable development in Africa, 1(7): 29-27.
57. Olanrewaju, U. (2014). Corporate Social Responsibility of Corporations to Host Communities: Business Day Newspaper, Sept. 26, pp. 43
58. Olawuyi, D. (2020). Environmental impact assessments in Nigeria: A critical review. International Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 6(1), 30-45.
59. Olawuyi, D. (2021). Regulating gas flaring in Nigeria: Legal frameworks, challenges, and policy options. African Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 14(3), 135-148.
60. Oloyede, B. (2020). Public participation in environmental policy development in Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Studies, 15(1), 23–38.
61. Oloyede, B. (2021). Corruption and governance issues in environmental policy enforcement in Nigeria. Journal of Governance and Policy, 9(3), 65–78.
62. Olujimi, R. (2010). The enforcement of environmental protection laws in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Journal of African Law and Policy, 8(3), 127-142.
63. Onwuka, C. P. (2023). Environmental degradation in the Niger Delta: A review of oil exploration impacts. International Journal of Environmental Science, 30(2), 76-89.
64. Osuagwu, O., & Ezie, O. (2013). Multinational corporations and the Nigerian economy: Impacts and challenges. Journal of Economic Development and Policy, 14(2), 89-102.
65. Ross, M. L. (2001). Does oil hinder democracy? World Politics, 53(3), 325–361.
66. Sala-i-Martin, X., & Subramanian, A. (2013). Addressing the natural resource curse: An illustration from Nigeria. Journal of African Economies, 22(4), 570–615.
67. Sampson, D. (2015). ICT Consumption and challenges of environmental Sustainability in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Beyon Global Market, Jan 5-8, international Society of Market and Development, Hanoi, Vietnam pp:12-19.
68. Sampson, J. (2020). The role of sustainable resource management in mitigating the impacts of gas flaring. Journal of Sustainable Development, 32(1), 45-60.
69. Spero, J., Hart, J. (2003).The Politics of International Economic Relations, London Thompson
70. Uduak, S. (2019). Poverty, oil, and environmental degradation in Akwa Ibom State: A case study of oil-bearing communities. Development in Africa Journal, 6(2), 88-101.
71. Ugbomeh, B. (2018). Oil exploration and Exploitation: some lessons from Delta State. In: Odermerho (editior). Delta State in Maps.An occasional publication series of the Department of Geography and Regional Planning Delta State University, Abraka.Journal of Agriculture and sustainability, 28(14): 172-181.
72. Ugochukwu, A. (2021). Health risks of gas flaring in the Niger Delta: A public health perspective. Nigerian Journal of Public Health, 19(4), 72-80.
73. Umoh, J. I., & Okon, E. E. (2023). Impact of oil spills on the environment of Akwa Ibom State: A review. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 12(3), 120-132.
74. UNEP (2021). Environmental impact of gas flaring in the Niger Delta: A report on health and ecological consequences. United Nations Environment Programme.
75. Victor, I Ebong, I. and Washington, U. (2018) oil Exploration and the Challenges of Implementing Environmental protection Policies in Nigeria’s Niger delta Region. International Journal of Social, Politics and humanities 4(2):231-244.
76. Watts, M. (2004). Resource curse? Governmentality, oil, and power in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Geopolitics, 9(1), 50–80.
Authors
[1]
“Multinational Companies and Environmental Degradation in Akwa Ibom State”, Soc. sci. humanities j., vol. 9, no. 03, pp. 7251–7265, Mar. 2025, doi: 10.18535/sshj.v9i03.1711.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.