The Impact of Digital Technologies on Junior Primary Learners’ Engagement and Academic Outcomes in Windhoek Rural Schools
Abstract
This study explores the impact of digital technologies on junior primary learners’ engagement and academic outcomes in rural Windhoek schools. The findings reveal that integrating digital technologies into classrooms significantly enhances student engagement, fosters personalized learning and improves academic performance. Teachers and administrators reported that the interactive nature of technology increased learners' motivation and participation, creating dynamic and collaborative learning environments. Digital tools also enabled differentiated instruction, allowing educators to cater to individual learning needs, thereby enhancing comprehension and skill development. However, the study also identified several challenges to effective technology integration, including limited access to digital resources, insufficient teacher training and resistance to change. Many junior primary learners lacked personal access to devices and reliable internet connectivity, which created disparities in learning opportunities. Educators also expressed a need for more structured professional development to build confidence in using digital tools, while some teachers resisted adopting technology due to concerns over its impact on traditional teaching methods. To overcome these barriers, the study recommends ongoing professional development for teachers, equitable access to digital resources, strong administrative support and the creation of a supportive learning environment. By addressing these challenges, schools can enhance technology integration, improve educational outcomes and ensure that all learners benefit from digital learning opportunities. The study underscores the transformative potential of digital technologies in shaping the future of junior primary education, particularly in rural school settings. Future research should further explore the long-term effects of technology integration on learners' academic growth and the effectiveness of strategies implemented to support teachers.
References
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30. Edwards, S. (2020). The impact of digital learning on early childhood education: Global perspectives and challenges. International Journal of Educational Research, 98, 101-110.
31. Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher Beliefs and Technology Integration Practices: A Developmental Model. Computers & Education, 55(3), 202-213.
32. Farjon, D., Smits, A., & Voogt, J. (2019). Technology integration of pre-service teachers explained by attitudes and beliefs, competency, access, and experience. Computers & Education, 130, 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.11.010
33. Hartman, R. J., Townsend, M. B., & Jackson, M. (2019). Educators’ perspectives of technology integration into the classroom: A descriptive case study. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 1-14. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/2397-7604.htm.
34. Hattie, J. (2020). Visible Learning for Mathematics, Grades K-12: What Works Best to Optimize Student Learning. Corwin Press.
35. Hew, K. F., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating Technology into K-12 Teaching and Learning: Current Knowledge and Future Directions. Technology and Teacher Education Annual, 1, 2-8.
36. Ige, O. & Hlalele, D. (2019). Effects of computer-aided and blended teaching strategies on students’ achievement in civic education concepts in mountain learning ecologies. Education & Information Technologies, 22(6), 2693–2709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9598-x
37. Ige, M. M., & Hlalele, D. (2019). Digital technology access and adoption in African rural schools: A comparative study. African Journal of Education and Information Technology, 17(4), 45-62.
38. Ihmeideh, F. & Al-Maadadi, F. (2018). Towards improving kindergarten teachers’ practices regarding the integration of ICT into early years settings. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (Springer Science & Business Media B.V.), 27(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-017-0366-x
39. Janisse, H. C., Li, X., Bhavnagri, N. P., Esposito, C., & Stanton, B. (2018). A longitudinal study of the effect of computers on the cognitive development of low-income African American preschool children. Early Education and Development, 29(2), 229-244.
40. Jeong, H. I., & Kim, Y. (2019). The acceptance of computer technology by teachers in early childhood education. Interactive Learning Environments, 25(4), 496-512. http://doi:10.1080/10494820.2016.1143376
41. Jeong, J., & Kim, H. (2019). Digital technology used in early education: A cross-cultural analysis of teacher perceptions. Computers in the Schools, 36(2), 95-112.
42. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (2016). Cooperative Learning: Improving University Instruction by Baseline Comparative Research. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3), 1-26.
43. Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What Is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60-70.
44. Li, Y., Yang, H. H., & MacLeod, J. (2019). Preferences toward the constructivist smart classroom learning environment: examining pre-service teachers’ connectedness. Interactive Learning Environments, 27(3), 349–362.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1474232
45. Lin, Y.T. (2019). Impacts of a flipped classroom with a smart learning diagnosis system on students’ learning performance, perception, and problem-solving ability in a software engineering course. Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.036
46. Lisenbee, P.S. (2020). Generation gap between students’ needs and teachers’ use of technology in classrooms. Journal of Literacy and Technology, 17(3), 99-123. http://www.literacyandtechnology.org/uploads/1/3/6/8/136889/jlt_v16_3_lisenbee .pdf
47. Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia Learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
48. McDermott, P. & Gormley, K. A. (2020). Teachers’ use of technology in elementary reading lessons. Reading Psychology, 37(1),121–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2015.1009592
49. McKnight, K., O’Malley, K., Ruzic, R., Horsley, M. K., Franey, J. J., & Bassett, K. (2020). Teaching in a digital age: How educators use technology to improve student learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 48(3), 194– 211. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2016.1175856
50. McKnight, K., O’Malley, K., Ruzic, R., Horsley, M. K., Franey, J. J., & Bassett, K. (2020). Teaching in a digital age: The impact of technology on learning outcomes. Journal of Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(1), 1-20.
51. Meguid, E., & Collins, M. (2019). Students’ perceptions of lecturing approaches: Traditional versus interactive teaching. Advances in Medical Education and Practice, 8, 229–241.
https://doi.org/10.2147/amep.s131851
52. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teacher College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.
53. O'Reilly, M. (2018). Digital Learning in Primary Education: A Review of Current Practices. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1), 64-80.
54. Selwyn, N. (2019). Should robots replace teachers? AI and the future of education. Political Press.
55. Voogt, J., Fisser, P., Good, J., & Mishra, P. (2015). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge—A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Smart Learning Environments, 2(1), 1-10.
2. Ali, R. (2019). A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the 19th century. New York Times. USA.
3. Al Khateeb, M. A. M. (2019). Effect of mobile gaming on mathematical achievement among 4th Graders. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 14(7), 4–17. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i07.10315
4. Alt, D. (2018). Science teachers’ conceptions of teaching and learning, ICT efficacy, ICT professional development and ICT practices enacted in their classrooms. Teaching & Teacher Education, 73, 141–150.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.03.020
5. Alt, D. (2018). Teachers’ beliefs about technology integration in education: A systematic review. Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 123-135.
6. Altheid, P., & Jhonson, F. (2019). Effects of Teaching Materials on Learners’ behavior (PDF). University of California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 November 2016
7. Altun, D. (2019). Investigating pre-service early childhood education teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) competencies regarding digital literacy skills and their technology attitudes and usage. Journal of Education and Learning, 8(1), 249–263. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v8n1p249
8. Arikan, A., Fernie, D., & Kantor, R. (2020). Supporting the professional development of early childhood teachers in Head Start: A case of acquiring technology proficiency. Ilkogretim Online, 16(4), 1829-1849. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2017.342996
9. Arnott, L. (2019). Framing technological experiences in the early years. Digital Technologies and Learning in the Early Years,7-19. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526414502.n2
10. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.
11. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.
https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1982AP.pdf
12. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
13. Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749- 5978(91)90022-L
14. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V.S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior, 4, 71-81. https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura1994EHB.pdf
15. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman. Bandura A. (2005). The evolution of social cognitive theory. In K. G. Smith & M. A. Hitt (Eds.), Great minds in management (pp. 9-35). Oxford University Press.
16. Bandura, A. (2021). Towards the psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 164-180. http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Bandura/Bandura2006PPS.pdf
17. Berson, I. R., Murcia, K., Berson, M. J., Damjanovic, V., & McSporran, V. (2019). Tangible digital play in Australian and U.S. preschools. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 55(2), 78–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2019.1580986
18. Boschman, F., McKenney, S., & Voogt, J. (2021). Exploring teachers’ use of TPACK in design talk: The collaborative design of technology-rich early literacy activities. Computers & Education, 82, 250–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2019.1580986
19. Bowen, J. A. & Watson, C. E. (2019). Teaching naked techniques: Levering research on learning to improve the effectiveness of teaching. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 49(5), 26-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091383.2017.1366809
20. Castillo-Montoya, M. (2020). Preparing for interview research: The interview protocol refinement framework. The Qualitative Report, 21(5), 811-831. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss5/2
21. Charlotte, E., & Hagström, J. R. (2019). Qualitative questionnaires as a method for information studies research. Information Research, 22(1), 1–11.
http://informationr.net/ir/22-1/colis/colis1639.html
22. Choi, J., & Yi, Y. (2020). Teachers’ integration of multimodality into classroom practices for English language learners. TESOL Journal, 7(2), 304–327. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.204
23. Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2020). Math, science, and technology in early grades. Future of Children, 26(2), 75–94. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0013
24. Constantine, A., Różowa, P., Szostkowski, A., Ellis, J., & Roehrig, G. (2019). The “T” in STEM: How elementary science teachers’ beliefs of technology integration translate to practice during a co-developed STEM unit. Journal of Computers in Mathematics & Science Teaching, 36(4), 339–349.
25. Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. L. (2020). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. SAGE
26. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach. SAGE Publications.
27. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. SAGE Publications.
28. Dong, C. (2018). Preschool teachers’ perspectives and pedagogical practices: young children’s use of ICT. Early Child Development & Care, 188(6), 635–650. https://doi-org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1226293
29. Edwards, S. (2020). New concepts of play and the problem of technology, digital media and popular-culture integration with play-based learning in early childhood education. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 25(4), 513-532. http://doi:10.1080/1475939x.2015.1108929
30. Edwards, S. (2020). The impact of digital learning on early childhood education: Global perspectives and challenges. International Journal of Educational Research, 98, 101-110.
31. Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher Beliefs and Technology Integration Practices: A Developmental Model. Computers & Education, 55(3), 202-213.
32. Farjon, D., Smits, A., & Voogt, J. (2019). Technology integration of pre-service teachers explained by attitudes and beliefs, competency, access, and experience. Computers & Education, 130, 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.11.010
33. Hartman, R. J., Townsend, M. B., & Jackson, M. (2019). Educators’ perspectives of technology integration into the classroom: A descriptive case study. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 1-14. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/2397-7604.htm.
34. Hattie, J. (2020). Visible Learning for Mathematics, Grades K-12: What Works Best to Optimize Student Learning. Corwin Press.
35. Hew, K. F., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating Technology into K-12 Teaching and Learning: Current Knowledge and Future Directions. Technology and Teacher Education Annual, 1, 2-8.
36. Ige, O. & Hlalele, D. (2019). Effects of computer-aided and blended teaching strategies on students’ achievement in civic education concepts in mountain learning ecologies. Education & Information Technologies, 22(6), 2693–2709. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9598-x
37. Ige, M. M., & Hlalele, D. (2019). Digital technology access and adoption in African rural schools: A comparative study. African Journal of Education and Information Technology, 17(4), 45-62.
38. Ihmeideh, F. & Al-Maadadi, F. (2018). Towards improving kindergarten teachers’ practices regarding the integration of ICT into early years settings. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (Springer Science & Business Media B.V.), 27(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-017-0366-x
39. Janisse, H. C., Li, X., Bhavnagri, N. P., Esposito, C., & Stanton, B. (2018). A longitudinal study of the effect of computers on the cognitive development of low-income African American preschool children. Early Education and Development, 29(2), 229-244.
40. Jeong, H. I., & Kim, Y. (2019). The acceptance of computer technology by teachers in early childhood education. Interactive Learning Environments, 25(4), 496-512. http://doi:10.1080/10494820.2016.1143376
41. Jeong, J., & Kim, H. (2019). Digital technology used in early education: A cross-cultural analysis of teacher perceptions. Computers in the Schools, 36(2), 95-112.
42. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (2016). Cooperative Learning: Improving University Instruction by Baseline Comparative Research. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3), 1-26.
43. Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What Is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60-70.
44. Li, Y., Yang, H. H., & MacLeod, J. (2019). Preferences toward the constructivist smart classroom learning environment: examining pre-service teachers’ connectedness. Interactive Learning Environments, 27(3), 349–362.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1474232
45. Lin, Y.T. (2019). Impacts of a flipped classroom with a smart learning diagnosis system on students’ learning performance, perception, and problem-solving ability in a software engineering course. Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.036
46. Lisenbee, P.S. (2020). Generation gap between students’ needs and teachers’ use of technology in classrooms. Journal of Literacy and Technology, 17(3), 99-123. http://www.literacyandtechnology.org/uploads/1/3/6/8/136889/jlt_v16_3_lisenbee .pdf
47. Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia Learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
48. McDermott, P. & Gormley, K. A. (2020). Teachers’ use of technology in elementary reading lessons. Reading Psychology, 37(1),121–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2015.1009592
49. McKnight, K., O’Malley, K., Ruzic, R., Horsley, M. K., Franey, J. J., & Bassett, K. (2020). Teaching in a digital age: How educators use technology to improve student learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 48(3), 194– 211. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2016.1175856
50. McKnight, K., O’Malley, K., Ruzic, R., Horsley, M. K., Franey, J. J., & Bassett, K. (2020). Teaching in a digital age: The impact of technology on learning outcomes. Journal of Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(1), 1-20.
51. Meguid, E., & Collins, M. (2019). Students’ perceptions of lecturing approaches: Traditional versus interactive teaching. Advances in Medical Education and Practice, 8, 229–241.
https://doi.org/10.2147/amep.s131851
52. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teacher College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.
53. O'Reilly, M. (2018). Digital Learning in Primary Education: A Review of Current Practices. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1), 64-80.
54. Selwyn, N. (2019). Should robots replace teachers? AI and the future of education. Political Press.
55. Voogt, J., Fisser, P., Good, J., & Mishra, P. (2015). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge—A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Smart Learning Environments, 2(1), 1-10.
Authors
[1]
“The Impact of Digital Technologies on Junior Primary Learners’ Engagement and Academic Outcomes in Windhoek Rural Schools”, Soc. sci. humanities j., vol. 9, no. 03, pp. 7407–7418, Feb. 2025, doi: 10.18535/sshj.v9i03.1751.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.