Revisiting India’s Nuclear Policy in the Modi Era: Continuity, Change and Challenges

Introduction

A nation's foreign policy is primarily the result of a realistic assessment of its political strength, economic resources, and military power. For the security and integrity of a nation, nuclear policy is an integral part.  It enhances a country's power and status. In contemporary international politics, the quest for energy security has become a new imperative for sovereign nation-states (Sahu, 2020, p.2361). However, in a country like India, nuclear policy is envisioned to develop peaceful uses of nuclear energy, taking into account domestic and international conditions and perceptions of India's future course of action regarding nuclear energy. In the democratic model of governance, India faced a nuclear question in its foreign policy since the inception of the non-alignment policy.  

From the early days of independence, Jawaharlal Nehru known as the architect of India's Foreign Policy took a strong and influential stance against nuclear weapons (Abraham, 1998). Under his active leadership, this policy has enabled India to strengthen its nuclear capabilities on the international stage. Mostly speaking, Nehru and Dr. Bhabha were responsible for building a very inspiring network of nuclear laboratories, power plants and other facilities [8]. By their outstanding contribution, the chain of nuclear power stations and all the related facilities that are available today. At the same time, particularly in the nuclear field, India has adopted a defensive policy popularly known as the 'no first use nuclear policy', 'credible minimum nuclear deterrence policies. This policy is now universally accepted as India has proved to be a political weapon state, a weapon not for fighting war. Its sole purpose is to prevent the use and threat of the use of nuclear weapons. India's nuclear policy is also concerned with maintaining political stability and husbanding scarce resources for economic development (Basrur, 2006).

The spread of nuclear policy and its technology remains an important issue in a globalizing world.  However, the nuclear policy under the Modi era starting from 2014 to the present day has been marked by the development of security challenges and the development of new nuclear technology to face the tensions with nuclear-armed neighbors: Pakistan and China. Under the present Government, Modi has been trying to change the nature and scope of nuclear policy from traditional nuclear doctrine to advanced nuclear technology. He has activated a possible recalibration of India's nuclear strategy as the emerging nuclear-weapon state of the world adheres to global non-proliferation norms. So, revisiting the nuclear policy of India in the Modi era is both opportune and needed with continuity, change, and emergent challenges shaping India's nuclear route in the 21st century. Before discussing Modi's Approach to Nuclear Strategy, it is essential to examine the historical progression of India's nuclear policy, its objectives, principles, and programmes.

Nuclear Policy Of India: Historical Progression

Pointing to the strong adoption of the nuclear policy of India, Morarji Desai, former Prime Minister of India said that "nuclear policy is that policy even if the entire country is destroyed in their absence". He further argued that nuclear testing programmes and the development of global nuclear disarmament are the two basic doctrines of the Indian Nuclear Policy. After the end of World War II, India pursued nuclear weapons which were included in India's foreign policy. The architect of Indian Foreign Policy sought to make the country a nuclear power. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru took the leaderships in founding India's nuclear programme. He has included this in the basic principles of Indian Foreign policy. The architect of Indian Foreign Policy sought to shape nuclear policy in light of security concerns, technological advancements, and global non-proliferation dynamics. After independence, India emphasized the peaceful uses of nuclear energy under the able leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru and the Scientist Homi J. Bhabha. To strengthen nuclear energy in India and to advocate global nuclear disarmament, the Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948. Its prime purposes were to encourageforward-thinking research in nuclear science, engineering, nuclear resource exploitation and development of the nuclear infrastructure (Perkovich, 1999, Chengappa, 2000).

For the first time, India started its nuclear option under the charismatic leadership of Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1974. A peaceful nuclear test was conducted at Pokhran (Rajasthan). It is recognized as 'Smiling Buddha' because the test was permitted on Buddha Purnima. It marked a historical breakthrough, demonstrating India's nuclear capability [9]. It is manifested as the 6th country in the world to conduct a nuclear test after the USA, China, France, the Soviet Union (Russia) and the United Kingdom. The Government of India declared this development as a peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE) which highlighted India's capability in global nuclear politics. India had also faced international criticism from western countries for this nuclear test. Similarly, former Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi had established a nuclear delivery system. Its primary purpose is to measure the effectiveness of nuclear strategy and its delivery system in achieving its goals. To strengthen the delivery system, the ‘Agni intermediate-range ballistic missile test’ was conducted in 1989. It tests India's credibility regarding its nuclear posture [14]. The second nuclear test was conducted by India in 1998 at Pokhran (Rajasthan). This test proved India as a de-facto nuclear-weapon state by demonstrating its nuclear capabilities. The test was conducted by the leadership of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam & Dr. R. Chidambaram during the Prime Ministership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee. The test is known as ‘Operation Shakti’. The test faced international condemnation, alluding to concerns over nuclear proliferation (Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 1999).

India’s Nuclear Strategy: Core Objectives

Understanding the vital objectives of India's nuclear strategy is indispensable for evaluating its role in safeguarding deterrence, precluding conflicts & underpinning India's place as a responsible nuclear power. The following are key features/objectives of India's nuclear policy.

• To achieve the ‘credible minimum deterrence’ as a strategy of India’s nuclear policy.

• To achieve the peaceful use of nuclear energy.

• To become a permanent member of nuclear supply groups (NSG).

• To maintain ‘no first use policy’ as the strategy of nuclear policy of India.

• To maintain strategy autonomy in making decision on nuclear agreements without any pressure.

• To preserve strict civilian control over nuclear weapons.

• To retain assured ‘second-strike capability’ if there nuclear attack to India.

• To strengthen political nuclear diplomacy of India with major powers of the world.

• To strengthen the national security in maintaining nuclear relations with other states.

• To upkeep the global nuclear non-proliferation states.

MODI’S Approach To Nuclear Strategy

The Nuclear Policy of India has been re/shaped by the energetic commitments of its political leaders. It is regulated by nuclear strategy autonomy, a no-first-use policy & credible deterrence. After Narendra Modi became the Indian Prime Minister, India reached its zenith in its functional trends of nuclear policy. Under his able leadership, India entered into several new nuclear policy agreements to strengthen a consistent & modern nuclear arsenal. India has signed a couple of bilateral and multilateral agreements on nuclear policy with greater cooperation from international nuclear actors such as the United States, France, and Australia and Russia. The charismatic leadership of Modi in international relations created space for India to sign dozens of nuclear agreements, balancing continuity and change. The long list of the journey of nuclear policy agreements under the Modi era (2014-2025) are given below.

India-Australia Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement (2014):-

India is universally known as the largest democracy of the world. It is also known as the emerging superpower of Asia, an influential regional power of South Asia. This has been marked by India's practical relations with major powers, international and regional organizations. The international relationship between India and Australia can be described as a best strategic partnership as evidenced by the signals in their bilateral and multilateral agreements. As the PM of India, Modi started his diplomatic relations with Australia with civil nuclear power agreements. An incredible agreement was signed on 5^th September 2014 by the leaders of two countries: Prime Ministers Tony Abbott (Australia) and Narendra Modi (India). This agreement is widely known as 'The India-Australia Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement'. The agreement reflects Australia's reliability as a responsible nuclear supplier. It was a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in which Australia signed a MoU to supply uranium to India which led to comprehensive nuclear science and technology cooperation. In their nuclear deal, a broad range of issues: nuclear energy, trade, and education were discussed [3].

After one year, this agreement became effective and for its successful implementation, the Parliament of Australia passed a bill in December 2016 regarding the transfer of Civil Nuclear to India. A bill was prepared to authorize Australian Uranium companies to supply it to India for civil use in the country without challenging IAEA guidelines. Pointing to this development, the Australian PM said in a press conference that “to supply uranium to India, various safeguards will be applied under the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) umbrella agreement”. Referring to the agreement and bill passed by the Parliament of Australia, an organization known as the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) argued that the agreements have weak safeguards. It is poor on nuclear facility safety, and the relevance of the agreement with non-signatory NPT states like India [6]. Once more, Abbott, the then PM of Australia, commented that "we signed a nuclear agreement to supply uranium with India. Because Australia trusts that India will use it in the right route & will take peaceful measures. Though the supply of uranium, the strategy partnership between the two countries would be boosted" [10]. Hence, the nuclear strategy between India and Australia has endorsed their respective commitments to confirm the safe, well- structured, and environmentally sound use of nuclear energy. This record of nuclear strategy will support India's efforts to fulfill the clean energy goals.

India-Russia Nuclear Reactor Construction Cooperation (2014):-

An important nuclear treaty was signed between India and Russia to strengthen nuclear technology and energy. On 11 December 2014, three key nuclear agreements were signed between Indian PM Modi and Russian President Putin. Those are:

• To reinforce cooperation in the peaceful use of Atomic Energy.

• To deliver technical data and information without revelation.

• To cooperate in the framework of inter-governmental agreements to heighten cooperation in Gas and Oil in 2015-16.

After the agreement, Russia was recognized as India's best partner in nuclear technology (Bhandari, 2014). Pointing to the development of the agreement, President Putin said in a press conference that "this agreement is not just trading goods or services or even technology, it is the creation of an entire industry, a new industry for India." [17]. The main purpose of this agreement is the construction of additional nuclear reactors at Kudankulam for the long-term transfer of nuclear energy & technology to India.

During their nuclear deal, both leaders signed a strategy document to strengthen cooperation in atomic energy. They have discussed the role of Rosatom, the regional center established in Mumbai by Russia, in increasing the competitive edge of the nuclear power plant under construction in India. They have reinforced the new partnership in nuclear technology trade and identified new opportunities in Rosatom's renewed work culture and nuclear power trade relations with non-energy business partners in the South Asian region. In the documents, both leaders have decided to explore new opportunities to source materials and nuclear technological equipment from the Indian industry to design the nuclear power plant. Referring to this development, the CEO of Rasatom South Asia, Alexey Pimenov, argued that Rasatom's regional office will collaborate with Indian colleagues to construct the nuclear reactors at Kudankulam, to identify new opportunities and ensure the proper execution of mutually beneficial projects [12]. Therefore, the success of this nuclear project would take a fresh look at opportunities in international nuclear commerce.

India-Sri Lanka Civil Nuclear Deal (2015):-

A vibrant nuclear accord was signed between India and Sri Lanka on the central theme of “Cooperation in the peaceful uses of Nuclear Energy". The agreement was contracted between Indian PM Narendra Modi and Sri Lankan President Maithripala Sirisena on 16th February 2015. The core purposes of the accord were the development and strengthening of mutually beneficial scientific, economic, and technical cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology (World Nuclear News, 2015). Other significant facets of the accord were:

• Use of radioisotopes (radiation safety, nuclear safety and nuclear security).

• Training of personnel in the peaceful use of nuclear energy.

• Cooperation in radioactive waste management.

• Nuclear and radiological mitigation and environmental protection.

Indicating the agreement, the Sri Lankan President said in a press conference that "this bilateral talk on the civil nuclear agreement between our two countries is a new milestone to demonstrate mutual trust. It will offer an opportunity to boost nuclear energy." Modi also supported Sirisena's statement and stated that "this delegation-level talk will help both countries to engage in the nuclear trade, which is the first endeavor that the Sri Lankan Government has retained with India counterpart". Patali Champika Ranawaka, Minister of Power and Energy, Government of Sri Lanka accentuated that "the agreement was a good signal for healthy bonds between the two states, expressly given India's growing fear of China's proximity to Sri Lanka, which is perceived as a security threat for New Delhi" (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Sri Lanka, 2015).This nuclear cooperation between India and Sri Lanka will make stronger the bilateral relationship in the future.

India and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Peaceful Agreement on Nuclear Energy (2015):-

The Nuclear Cooperation Agreement on the peaceful uses of nuclear technology was signed between the Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of India on 13th November 2015. The High Commissioners, James Bevan (the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) & Ranjan Mathai (the Government of India) signed the accord to draw up a final outline for nuclear cooperation. They signed on different agenda on nuclear strategy, focusing on the exchange of personnel and technological cooperation, the search for new nuclear projects, the development of various skills and expertise, the proper training of nuclear-related staff, and the development and promotion of research in nuclear sectors. In the accord, they have also decided on the financial assistance and the extent of the funds to promote nuclear trade in the international market. Thus, this nuclear cooperation agreement will strengthen bilateral ties in the nuclear area. It will help India to develop a clear, sustainable energy source with other countries of the world (The Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India, 2015).

India-USA Nuclear Cooperation Implementation (2015):-

To strengthen nuclear technology, India and the USA signed a landmark agreement on 25th January 2015, named 'the India-USA Civil Nuclear Cooperation Implementation'. Indian PM Narendra Modi and USA President Barack Obama signed the nuclear accord. Turning to the significance of the agreement, Obama described it as a 'breakthrough understanding', highlighting two issues related to nuclear trade.

• The 'breakthrough on liability issue', in which he has analyzed the obstacles to India's nuclear liability law. To resolve the technical and legal difficulties, both counties reached an agreement. They had decided to establish an insurance pool whose sole responsibility was to address supplier liability risks and to understand in greater depth India's Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act.

• The 'finalization of administrative arrangements'. In this issue, both countries decided (i) to track nuclear material, (ii) to ensure obedience with international safeguards.

In addition, both leaders decided to facilitate the new reactor projects. U.S. companies like Westinghouse Electric Company and GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy would move forward with building nuclear reactors in India [1]. Hence, this nuclear agreement will help India to integrate its position into the global nuclear order, despite its non-signatory status to the NPT (1968). It will boost India's energy security, which has shifted from a historic agreement to cooperative implementation, and would open space for the practical application of mature nuclear technology.

India-Canada Uranium Supply Agreement (2015):-

To strengthen civil nuclear cooperation, India and Canada signed the 'India-Canada Uranium Supply Agreement'. It was signed on 15th April 2016 during the official visit of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper to India.  Under their nuclear deal, they have signed a contract to supply 22 million pounds of uranium to India. Its responsibility was assigned to Cameco Corporation which is the largest uranium producer. It was a commercial contract between Cameco (Canada) and the Department of Atomic Energy (India) to supply uranium products to India. Seeing the agreement moving in a positive direction, Tim Gitzel, CEO of Cameco, said "we are very happy to be a nuclear partner with India to supply uranium to meet its nuclear strategy and to support nuclear trade."  Gitzel furthermore argued that this agreement will help India with regional nuclear storage and the expansion of nuclear power generation. PM Modi of India also shared his statement on a positive direction by saying that "Canada is the best nuclear partner of India. We will boost our nuclear technology with trust and confidence” (World Nuclear News, 2026). The signing of the agreement is a strong indication of Canada's expanded energy cooperation with India and demonstrates the Government's effort to strengthen nuclear trade and investment with India. It will strengthen India's goals in the context of energy security and to establish an opportunity for future nuclear trade cooperation in the international market.

India-Japan Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement (2016):-

India and Japan signed a landmark agreement on civil nuclear cooperation on 11th November 2026. The agreement was signed between Shinzo Abe (Prime Minister of Japan) & Narendra Modi (Prime Minister of India). It is historical in nature because for the first time the Japanese Government granted to sign a deal with India which is not a signatory to the 1968 NPT. In the nuclear deal, Japan agreed to transfer technology and equipment to India. Directing to the historical accord, Japanese PM Abe said that "this nuclear deal with India reveals a new level of self-assurance and strategy partnership to strengthen clean energy and development of the country. It will open the new door to import nuclear technology for India". PM Modi expounded that "this historic agreement for collaboration in the peaceful usages of nuclear energy will make India's strategic partnership with Japan stronger in the transfer of nuclear equipment and in clean energy" (Nuclear Energy News, 2016). This agreement will help India for the enhancement of nuclear strategy partnership in energy and security. It gives a platform to the Japanese Government to engage with India in the atomic power which would further build up India into a responsible nuclear-weapon state.

India-Bangladesh Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement (2017):

To build cooperation in peaceful nuclear energy practices, India and Bangladesh signed an agreement. The agreement was signed on 8th April 2017 between Indian PM Narendra Modi and Bangladeshi PM Sheik Hasina. Both leaders agreed to cooperate on nuclear safety and radiation protection regulations. They discussed their research on nuclear power generation. A document was prepared to help Bangladesh to build a nuclear power plant at Rooppur in the Pabna district. Its commercial operation would start between 2023-24. India would help Bangladeshi scientists & technical personnel for the smooth functioning of the power plant and its nuclear facilities. Hence, this bilateral partnership would help India as Bangladesh's best partner in South Asia & will boost regional cooperation (World Nuclear News, 2017).

India-Russia Nuclear Agreement (2017):-

A General Framework of Agreement and Credit Protocol was signed between India and Russia to strengthen nuclear technology during the 18th Annual Russian-Indian Summit. It was held on 1st and 2nd June 2017. Both leaders: Putin and Modi signed the nuclear vision documents to build two units (Units 5 & 6) of a nuclear power plant at Kundankulam in the state of Tamil Nadu giving a new direction to defence cooperation between the two countries. During the summit, they signed a document known as a ‘vision for the 21st Century’ and a decision was made to invest in the energy sector by both countries. A 'nuclear bridge' was formed to expand bilateral relations in the field of energy cooperation- hydrocarbon, nuclear, hydel, and renewable energy sources. Its foremost purpose is to develop energy efficiency. The nuclear reactors (Units 5 and 6) at Kundankulam will be built by NPCIL (India) and Rosatom (Russia) with a combined capacity of 1000 MW. Another significant development of the agreement was Russia's commitment to supply reliable nuclear fuel to India's reactors to enhance long-term nuclear security (The New Indian Express, 2017). So, in the nuclear power sector, the growing partnership between India and Russia has unlocked opportunities to cultivate advanced nuclear manufacturing proficiencies under India's "Make in India" initiative. It has emerged as one of the trademarks of the strategic partnership contributing to India's energy security and scientific and technological collaboration.

India-UAE Nuclear Energy Agreement (2024):-

A significant step towards strengthening the strategic partnership in the nuclear sector was taken when India and the UAE signed an agreement on 9th September 2024. Its main purpose was to reduce the carbon footprint of the nuclear sector, operation and maintenance of the nuclear power plant and sourcing nuclear goods and services where Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation (ENEC) and Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) have agreed to work together. This engagement provides a strong framework for capacity-building in the civil nuclear sector. This agreement has developed into a cornerstone of mutual interests in energy security and nuclear technological cooperation. As per the agreement, technicians and engineers from India's nuclear sector will participate in the maintenance of the Barakah Nuclear Power Plant (the first nuclear facility on the Arabian Peninsula). Directing to the positive signal of the MoU, Mohmed AI Hammadi (Managing Director and Chief Executive Officer of ENEC) stated that "the MoU between India and UEA is a weighty step to achieve the nuclear goals by 2050. By developing bilateral ties between India and the UAE and the active role of the NPCIL (India), our commitment would be fruitful in developing reliable, carbon-free electricity that nuclear energy provides 24/7. By the Barakah Nuclear Energy Plant, we can successfully commit our goals to be a successful nuclear partner of India” [13].This transformation will be reflected in both countries goals to position themselves as global leaders in energy conversion, demonstrating that both countries worked as nuclear technology partners. India would recognize its nuclear diplomacy, which would strengthen West-Asian partnership. Hence, the nuclear partnership between India and the UAE marks a momentous step toward engaging in South-South Cooperation in nuclear technology.

India-Russia Nuclear Supply Agreement(2024):

India and Russia signed a couple of agreements in 2024 on nuclear energy cooperation. Both countries tried to sign an accord on fuel supply and the expansion of nuclear power projects. They have decided to constituteUnits 3 & 4 at the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (Tamil Nadu) to strengthen their nuclear energy capacity. In February 2024, leaders of both countries signed a protocol to amend the earlier agreement: the Kudan kulam agreement of 2008. In their amendment, they have discussed to accelerate the construction of Units 3-6 of the Kundan kulam project and extending technical cooperation in the nuclear sector. Similarly, in July 2024, both countries signed an accord to supply uranium during the India-Russia Annual Summit, during which discussions were held on fuel supply for upcoming reactors. These agreements had a significant impact on India in the context of long-term nuclear fuel supply, supporting clean energy transitions and energy security. Russia plays an important role as India's best nuclear partner/supplier in exchanging nuclear technology. This agreement works just like an intersected fuel deal between India and Russia to strengthen nuclear technology (World Nuclear News, 2024).

India-France Nuclear Energy Cooperation (2025):-

To advance the nuclear energy transition and the strategic partnership, India and France signed an agreement in February 2025. Within the framework of the agreement, Modi (India) and Emmanuel Macron (France) emphasized the security of nuclear energy and nuclear technological collaboration. During Modi's visit, both nations reaffirmed their commitment to strengthening the proposed Jaitapur plant in Maharashtra. Both leaders committed to renewing and implementing the MoU between the two countries (Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India and Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives (CEA) of France for cooperation with the Global Centre for Nuclear Energy Partnership (GCNEP). Furthermore, they decided to undertake technological transfer in the nuclear sector and to develop skills. Simultaneously, India also tried to maintain local manufacturing under the ‘Make in India’ scheme. In the joint statement, they have signed a declaration of Intent on the 'Establishment of a Partnership on Advanced Modular Reactors and Small Modular Reactors'. This agreement is a significant milestone in nuclear cooperation and energy security, which would boost bilateral ties between the two countries (Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, 2025).

The following table clearly shows Modi's approach to India's nuclear strategy.

Modi's Approach To Nuclear Strategy (2014- 2025)

Difficulties And Future Outlook

The above-mentioned list of agreements clearly shows that India has entered into manifold nuclear agreements with many countries worldwide. During the implementation of the agreement, India faces a range of structural, economic and political challenges.

Difficulties:

• Under the India-Australia Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, India faces challenges, including domestic opposition in Australia to nuclear technology exports as well as price volatility and uncertainties in nuclear supply. India faces the challenge of safeguarding Australian uranium in accordance with the norms and conditions of the International system for the export and import of nuclear technology.

• Another significant challenge is the implementation of the Kundankulam project which required expansion to complete the work. There is a delay in executing the work due to a financial issue as noted in the India-Russia Nuclear Reactor Construction Cooperation.

• In the India-Sri Lanka Civil Nuclear Deal, problems have emerged due to Sri Lanka's limited nuclear infrastructure. The nuclear accord was slowly implemented due to constraints on Sri Lanka's Technical and Regulatory capacity for nuclear infrastructure.

• Regulatory and liability issues emerged in the India-UK Nuclear Agreement due to the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (2010) which restricts financial matters in the context of the high cost of nuclear energy projects associated with renewable sources. India had also faced constraints on advanced technological transfer due to strategic and security considerations as well as its limited scope for sharing.

• In the India-USA Nuclear Cooperation Implementation, problems arose regarding the safeguards in the nuclear agreement. India favoured reliance on IAEA safeguards where the USA commanded strict tracking of nuclear material with India. By reason of high project costs, India faces challenges in implementing the USA’s nuclear technology.

• Under the India-Canada Uranium Supply Agreement, difficulties arose because of India's limited nuclear energy expansion as Canadian nuclear reactors face challenges in supplying uranium to India. Due to Global market volatility, there are disruptions in the supply of nuclear technology and uranium to India.

• In the India-Japan Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, India faces the difficulties as a non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. As a result, Japan faces troubles in sharing nuclear technology with India. Due to the nullification clause which is mentioned in the agreement between the two countries, India is unable to conduct a nuclear test despite Japan's various nuclear technologies with India. This termination clause really put greater pressure on India regarding nuclear sovereignty and the flexibility of its nuclear policy. Strong anti-nuclear sentiment and domestic opposition in Japan after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster was a greater challenge for India.

• Under the India-Bangladesh Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, India faces technological and capacity fears due to Bangladesh's limited experience with nuclear technology. There were no strong and independent regulatory institutions to monitor nuclear sector activities. There were no strong training personnel in nuclear technology in Bangladesh which has caused problems for India in handling technological activities.

• India faces a financial crisis due to the expansion of the Kudankulam nuclear project which was signed under the India-Russia Nuclear Agreement. India faces challenges due to the need for a large amount of funding to expand the activities. The project's work is delayed due to regulatory sanctions and land procurement issues at Kundankulam.

• Under the India–UAE Nuclear Energy Agreement, problems arise due to the UAE's limited nuclear infrastructure.  The country depends profoundly on foreign nuclear technology.  Due to the Middle East security issue, the nuclear cooperation between India and the UAE may be affected.

• Under the India-Russia Nuclear Supply Agreements, India faces challenges because it depends too much on Russia for nuclear technology. There is too much strategy dependency. The Kudankulam projects face problems with expansion activities due to high capital costs.

• In the India-France Nuclear Energy Cooperation, there are issues of land acquisition at Jaitapur which is a challenge for France in developing a nuclear reactor. The local people also opposed to the development of the nuclear plant at Jaitapur (Maharashtra).

Future Outlook:

Despite the implementation challenges, India's nuclear agreements have a promising future with its emerging policy structures, major nuclear partnership with a major nuclear leader of the world and dynamic nuclear agendas of the Modi’s administration. Its numerous nuclear agenda presents a new framework, hopes and aspirations to be a dynamic nuclear weapon state in international nuclear politics. The following are some future promises of India's nuclear policy.

• Under the India-Australia Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, we can strengthen our mutual trust through political-level dialogue on nuclear safeguards. By ensuring a reliable nuclear supply to India, Australia can be India's best nuclear partner helping India to enhance its nuclear technology. Uranium imports from Australia would support India's nuclear capacity. Partnership in nuclear safety, waste management, and advanced reactor technologies would help India to boost its technological and scientific knowledge in the nuclear sector.

• In the India-Russia Nuclear Reactor Construction Cooperation, India can promote localisation of manufacturing and technology in the nuclear sector. It can boost nuclear proficiencies in line with ‘the Make in India’ vision. This agreement would help to develop India's long-term security. It can help to complete the Kundankulam nuclear project making it the largest nuclear hub in India. Thus, we can call this nuclear accord is the new mainstay of the India-Russia strategic partnership.

• The India-Sri Lanka Civil Nuclear Deal can help India to strengthen and regulate its nuclear safety framework. It would help India to create technical professionals in nuclear energy. It will help Sri Lanka to improve nuclear skills and knowledge for its regional training center.

• Under the India-United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Peaceful Agreement on Nuclear Energy, India can enhance research into nuclear technology with the United Kingdom. It could strengthen bilateral trade in nuclear resources and equipment. It would create space for the private sector to take part in engagement with nuclear knowledge. It would enhance India's position in the global nuclear market.

• Under the India-USA Nuclear Cooperation Implementation, India can develop advanced nuclear technology that could help to extend the scope of collaboration in next-generation and reactor policies. It could extend bilateral trade relations with the USA, further strengthen the scope of research in the nuclear energy sector and boost the joint research programme between the two countries.

• Under the India-Canada Uranium Supply Agreement, India can secure a long-term uranium supply to strengthen its nuclear skill. With unremitting nuclear supply from Canada, India could expand its nuclear capacity and research scope. The agreement would help to create a new roadmap for the expansion of advanced nuclear technology for India.

• Under the India-Japan Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, India can develop nuclear power generation by taking advanced nuclear technology from Japan. The agreement will help Japan to expand the scope of work for nuclear companies i.e. Toshiba in the Indian market. It would help India to develop domestic manufacturing companies and to develop a new strategy for a partnership between the two countries.

• Under the India-Bangladesh Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, Bangladesh would benefit from strengthening the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant where nuclear technical expertise and skills will be developed. The agreement may enhance nuclear safety and the regulatory framework between India and Bangladesh. It will connect regional energy security in South Asia by strengthening capacity building among Bangladeshi scientists, engineers, and technicians on nuclear energy.

• Under the India-Russia Nuclear Agreement, India will get a platform to support nuclear technology especially to complete the nuclear project at Kudankulam. It would help India to develop nuclear power capacity. Russia's assurance to supply long-term nuclear fuel to India will heighten India's energy security.

• Under the India-UAE Nuclear Energy Agreement, India would enhance the clean energy transition. It would strengthen nuclear safety and regulation. It will provide space for nuclear research enabling both countries to conduct joint programmes in the nuclear sector and enhance human resource development in nuclear expertise.

• Under the India-Russia Nuclear Supply Agreement, Russia guaranteed a steady supply of uranium fuel for Indian nuclear reactors helping India to boost its nuclear capacity. It would develop new nuclear infrastructure under the Make in India initiative in which cooperation and coordination will develop between the nuclear agencies of both countries.

• Under the India-France Nuclear Energy Cooperation, India can facilitate technology transfer to strengthen next-generation reactors. It could help India to strengthen fuel supply to its nuclear sector. It helps to complete the Jaitapur nuclear power plant (Maharashtra) which will be the largest in the world.

Conclusion:

In view of the above analysis, it is apparent that India's nuclear policy is a vibrant one designed to meet contemporary security challenges. Its practical orientation is evident in India's positive attitude toward signing nuclear pacts with other countries. It is possible only because of the long-standing commitments of India's political leaders from the first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to the present Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Their commitments are largely based on doctrines such as credible minimum deterrence, No First Use (NFU) and a responsible non-proliferation posture which strengthen India's position on strategic stability and global credibility. India has tested the visible elements of its nuclear agenda/policy by emphasizing its deterrence capabilities, an efficient delivery system, and a vibrant nuclear policy with the major nuclear powers of the world. India has already been listed in the international nuclear trade, with the pragmatic and developmental dimensions of its nuclear policy and its multifarious agreements. The dynamics of nuclear energy and new perspectives on regional security will help India become a leader in nuclear trade in the international market despite its non-membership in the NPT (1968).

The Nuclear Policy of India under the charismatic leadership of Narendra Modi from 2014 to 2025 demonstrates new visions, aspirations, and ambition. There are strategic consistencies among international actors on the new horizon of the nuclear agenda balancing deterrence credibility and global disarmament advocacy. There is continuity and adaptation in nuclear strategy under the Modi era marked by stability and sustainable development of nuclear arsenals. The Modi administration has introduced a new pattern of nuclear agenda from traditional nuclear technology to advanced nuclear technology. This continuity has been marked by the signing of dozens of nuclear treaties with the world's nuclear leaders.  There is operational flexibility in India's nuclear strategy partnership with nuclear partners worldwide which will boost nuclear cooperation and help fulfill energy demands. Modi's administration has significantly elevated nuclear policy by concluding numerous and diverse nuclear accords. These agreements may help India to become a permanent member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). For that purpose, support of the nuclear leader of the world is very much needed.  Modi's vision of nuclear strategy is dynamic with continuity reflected in nuclear principles, changes in energy approaches, and resilience in the face of emerging contemporary challenges. Therefore, revisiting India's nuclear policy in the era of Modi (2014-25) exposes a blend of continuity, standardized change, and embryonic challenges.

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